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Flapping

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="Flap_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Flap (disambiguation)">Flap (disambiguation)</a>.</div>

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</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">History and description of</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="English_phonology" title="English phonology">English pronunciation</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading">

Historical stages</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<ul><li><a href="Old_English_phonology" title="Old English phonology">Old English</a></li>

<li><a href="Middle_English_phonology" title="Middle English phonology">Middle English</a></li></ul>

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</tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading">

<a href="Phonological_history_of_English" title="Phonological history of English">General development</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<ul><li><a href="Phonological_history_of_Old_English" title="Phonological history of Old English">In Old English</a></li>

<li><a href="Phonological_history_of_Scots" title="Phonological history of Scots">In Scots</a></li></ul>

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<a href="Phonological_history_of_English_vowels" title="Phonological history of English vowels">Development of vowels</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<li><a href="Phonological_history_of_English_close_back_vowels" title="Phonological history of English close back vowels">Close back</a></li>

<li><a href="Phonological_history_of_English_close_front_vowels" title="Phonological history of English close front vowels">Close front</a></li>

<li><a href="Phonological_history_of_English_diphthongs" title="Phonological history of English diphthongs">Diphthongs</a></li>

<li><a href="Great_Vowel_Shift" title="Great Vowel Shift">Great Vowel Shift</a></li>

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Development of consonants</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<ul><li><a href="Phonological_history_of_English_consonants" title="Phonological history of English consonants">Single consonants</a></li>

<li><a href="Phonological_history_of_English_consonant_clusters" title="Phonological history of English consonant clusters">Clusters</a></li></ul>

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Variable features</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<ul><li><a href="Cot%E2%80%93caught_merger" title="Cot–caught merger">Cot–caught merger</a></li>

<li><a href="Drawl" title="Drawl">Drawl</a></li>

<li><a href="H-dropping" title="H-dropping">H-dropping</a></li>

<li><a href="L-vocalization" title="L-vocalization">L-vocalization</a></li>

<li><a href="Rhoticity_in_English" title="Rhoticity in English">Rhoticity</a></li>

<li><a href="T-glottalization" title="T-glottalization">T-glottalization</a></li>

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Related topics</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<ul><li><a href="History_of_English" title="History of English">History of English</a></li>

<li><a href="English_orthography" title="English orthography">Spelling</a></li></ul>

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Flapping or tapping, also known as alveolar flapping, intervocalic flapping, or t-voicing, is a <a href="Phonological" class="mw-redirect" title="Phonological">phonological</a> process involving a <a href="Voiced_dental_and_alveolar_taps_and_flaps" title="Voiced dental and alveolar taps and flaps">voiced alveolar tap or flap</a>; it is found in many varieties of <a href="English_language" title="English language">English</a>, especially <a href="North_American_English" title="North American English">North American</a>, <a href="Cardiff_English" title="Cardiff English">Cardiff</a>, <a href="Ulster_English" title="Ulster English">Ulster</a>, <a href="Australian_English" title="Australian English">Australian</a> and <a href="New_Zealand_English" title="New Zealand English">New Zealand English</a>, where the <a href="Voiceless" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless">voiceless</a> <a href="Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">alveolar</a> <a href="Stop_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop consonant">stop consonant</a> <a href="Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phoneme</a> /<a href="Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a>/ is pronounced as a <a href="Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiced</a> alveolar <a href="Flap_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Flap consonant">flap</a> [ɾ], a sound produced by briefly tapping the <a href="Alveolar_ridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolar ridge">alveolar ridge</a> with the tongue, when placed between <a href="Vowel" title="Vowel">vowels</a>. In London English, the flapped [<a href="Voiced_dental_and_alveolar_taps_and_flaps" title="Voiced dental and alveolar taps and flaps">ɾ</a>] is perceived as a casual pronunciation intermediate between the affricate [<a href="Voiceless_alveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless alveolar affricate">tsʰ</a>], with higher class associations, and the glottal stop [<a href="Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a>], with lower class associations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982325-1">[1]</a> In these named varieties, outside of Britain, /d/, the voiced counterpart of /t/, is also frequently pronounced as a flap in such positions, making pairs of words like latter and ladder sound similar or identical. In similar positions, the combination /nt/ may be pronounced as a <a href="Nasalization" title="Nasalization">nasalized</a> flap [<a href="Alveolar_nasal_tap" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolar nasal tap">ɾ̃</a>], making winter sound similar or identical to winner.

Flapping of /t/ is sometimes perceived as the replacement of /t/ with /d/; for example, the word butter pronounced with flapping may be heard as "budder".<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a>

In other dialects of English, such as <a href="South_African_English" title="South African English">South African English</a>, <a href="Scottish_English" title="Scottish English">Scottish English</a>, some <a href="Northern_England_English" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern England English">Northern England English</a> (like <a href="Scouse" title="Scouse">Scouse</a>), and older varieties of <a href="Received_Pronunciation" title="Received Pronunciation">Received Pronunciation</a>, the flap is a variant of /r/ (see <a href="Pronunciation_of_English_/r/" title="Pronunciation of English /r/">Pronunciation of English /r/</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOgden200992-3">[3]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terminology_and_articulation">Terminology and articulation</h2></div>

The terms <a href="Flap_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Flap consonant">flap and tap</a> are often used synonymously, although some authors make a distinction between them. When the distinction is made, a flap involves a rapid backward and forward movement of the tongue tip, while a tap involves an upward and downward movement.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedJohnson2011175–176-4">[4]</a> Linguists disagree on whether the sound produced in the present process is a flap or a tap, and by extension on whether the process is better called flapping or tapping,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982249-5">[5]</a> while flapping has traditionally been more widely used.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Jong1998284-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShockey200329-7">[7]</a> <a href="#CITEREFDerrickGick2011">Derrick & Gick (2011)</a> identify four types of sounds produced in the process: alveolar tap, down-flap, up-flap, and postalveolar tap (found in autumn, Berta, otter, and murder, respectively).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDerrickGick2011309–312-8">[8]</a>

In <a href="Cockney" title="Cockney">Cockney</a>, another voiced variant of /t/ that has been reported to occur to coexist with the alveolar tap (and other allophones, such as the very common <a href="Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">glottal stop</a>) is a simple <a href="Voiced_alveolar_stop" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar stop">voiced alveolar stop</a> [<a href="Voiced_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar plosive">d</a>], which occurs especially in the words little [ˈlɪdʊ], hospital [ˈɒspɪdʊ] and whatever [wɒˈdɛvə]. That too results in a (variable) merger with /d/, whereas the tap does not.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982326-9">[9]</a>

In <a href="Cardiff_English" title="Cardiff English">Cardiff English</a>, the alveolar tap is less rapid than the corresponding sound in traditional RP, being more similar to /d/. It also involves a larger part of the tongue. Thus, the typical Cardiff pronunciation of hospital as [ˈɑspɪɾl̩] or [ˈɑspɪɾʊ] is quite similar to Cockney [ˈɒspɪdʊ], though it does not involve a neutralization of the flap with [<a href="Voiced_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar plosive">d</a>].<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollinsMees199091–92-10">[10]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Distribution">Distribution</h2></div>

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Flapping of /t/ and /d/ is a prominent feature of <a href="North_American_English" title="North American English">North American English</a>. Some linguists consider it obligatory for most American dialects to flap /t/ between a <a href="Stress_(linguistics)" title="Stress (linguistics)">stressed</a> and an unstressed vowel.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShockey200329-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsmith2011191-11">[11]</a> Flapping of /t/ also occurs in <a href="Australian_English" title="Australian English">Australian</a>, <a href="New_Zealand_English" title="New Zealand English">New Zealand</a> and (especially <a href="Ulster_English" title="Ulster English">Northern</a>) <a href="Hiberno-English" title="Hiberno-English">Irish English</a>, and more infrequently or variably in <a href="South_African_English" title="South African English">South African English</a>, <a href="Cockney" title="Cockney">Cockney</a>, and <a href="Received_Pronunciation" title="Received Pronunciation">Received Pronunciation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShockey200330-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETrudgillHannah200824,_30,_35,_104-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHickey2007115-14">[14]</a>

The exact conditions for flapping in North American English are unknown, although it is widely understood that it occurs in an alveolar stop, /t/ or /d/, when placed between two vowels, provided the second vowel is unstressed (as in butter, writing, wedding, loader).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Jong1998284-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsmith2011191–192-15">[15]</a> Across word boundaries, however, it can occur between any two vowels, provided the second vowel begins a word (as in get over [ɡɛɾˈoʊvɚ]).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Jong1998284-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsmith2011191–192-15">[15]</a> This extends to morphological boundaries within compound words (as in whatever [ˌwʌɾˈɛvɚ]).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHualde20112230-16">[16]</a> In addition to vowels, segments that may precede the flap include /r/ (as in party)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsmith2011191-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHayes2009143-17">[17]</a> and occasionally /l/ (as in faulty).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoberg2015236-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones2011xi-19">[19]</a> Flapping after /l/ is more common in Canadian English than in American English.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrintonFee2001428-20">[20]</a> <a href="Syllabic_consonant" title="Syllabic consonant">Syllabic</a> /l/ may also follow the flap (as in bottle).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982248-21">[21]</a> Flapping of /t/ before /ən/ (as in button) is observed in Australian English.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETollfree200157–58-22">[22]</a> In North American English, [t] and [<a href="Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a>] (<a href="T-glottalization" title="T-glottalization">t-glottalization</a>) were the only realizations of /t/ before /ən/,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982251-23">[23]</a> but studies in the 2020s have found [ɾ] in younger US speakers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERepetti-LudlowBlake2024-24">[24]</a>

<a href="Morpheme" title="Morpheme">Morpheme</a>-internally, the vowel following the flap must not only be unstressed but also be a <a href="Vowel_reduction_in_English" class="mw-redirect" title="Vowel reduction in English">reduced</a> one (namely /ə/, morpheme-final or prevocalic /i, oʊ/, or /ɪ/ preceding /ŋ/, /k/, etc.<a href="#cite_note-26">[a]</a>),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHayes199514–15-27">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells2011-28">[27]</a> so words like botox, retail, and latex are not flapped in spite of the primary stress on the first syllables,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsmith2011191-11">[11]</a> while pity, motto, and Keating can be.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHayes199514–15-27">[26]</a> The second syllables in the former set of words can thus be considered as having <a href="Secondary_stress" title="Secondary stress">secondary stress</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Jong1998284-6">[6]</a>

Word-medial flapping is also prohibited in <a href="Foot_(prosody)" class="mw-redirect" title="Foot (prosody)">foot</a>-initial positions. This prevents words such as militaristic, spirantization, and Mediterranean from flapping, despite capitalistic and alphabetization, for example, being flapped. This is known as the <a href="#Withgott_effect">Withgott effect</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVaux20005-29">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBérces201184–89-30">[29]</a>

In North American English, the cluster /nt/ (but not /nd/) in the same environment as flapped /t/ may be realized as a <a href="Alveolar_nasal_flap" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolar nasal flap">nasal flap</a> [ɾ̃]. Intervocalic /n/ is also often realized as a nasal flap, so words like winter and winner can become homophonous.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedJohnson201174–75-31">[30]</a> According to <a href="#CITEREFWells1982">Wells (1982)</a>, in the United States, Southerners tend to pronounce winter and winner identically, while Northerners, especially those from the east coast, tend to retain the distinction, pronouncing winter with [ɾ̃] or [nt] and winner with [n].<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982252-32">[31]</a>

Given these intricacies, it is difficult to formulate a <a href="Phonological_rule" title="Phonological rule">phonological rule</a> that accurately predicts flapping.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShockey200329-7">[7]</a> Nevertheless, <a href="#CITEREFVaux2000">Vaux (2000)</a> postulates that it applies to alveolar stops:

<ul><li>after a <a href="Sonorant" title="Sonorant">sonorant</a> other than l, m, or ŋ, but with restrictions on n;</li>

<li>before an unstressed vowel within words, or before any vowel across a word boundary;</li>

<li>when not in foot-initial position.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVaux20004–5-33">[32]</a></li></ul>

</blockquote>

Exceptions include the preposition/particle to and words derived from it, such as today, tonight, tomorrow, and together, wherein /t/ may be flapped when intervocalic (as in go to sleep [ˌɡoʊɾəˈslip]).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsmith2011192-34">[33]</a> In Australian English, numerals thirteen, fourteen, and eighteen are often flapped despite the second vowel being stressed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHorvath2004635-35">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVaux20007-36">[35]</a> In a handful of words such as seventy, ninety, and carpenter, /nt/ is frequently pronounced as [nd], retaining /n/ and <a href="Consonant_voicing" class="mw-redirect" title="Consonant voicing">voicing</a> /t/, although it may still become [ɾ̃] in rapid speech.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVaux20006–7-37">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIversonAhn2007262–263-38">[37]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Homophony">Homophony</h2></div>

Flapping is a specific type of <a href="Lenition" title="Lenition">lenition</a>, specifically <a href="Intervocalic_consonant" title="Intervocalic consonant">intervocalic</a> weakening. It leads to the <a href="Neutralization_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutralization (linguistics)">neutralization</a> of the distinction between /t/ and /d/ in appropriate environments, a partial <a href="Merger_(phonology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Merger (phonology)">merger</a> of the two phonemes, provided that both /t/ and /d/ are flapped.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982249-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHayes2009144-39">[38]</a> Some speakers, however, flap only /t/ but not /d/. Yet, for a minority of speakers, the merger can occur only if neither sound is flapped. That is the case in Cockney, where /t/ is occasionally voiced to [<a href="Voiced_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar plosive">d</a>], yielding a variable merger of little and <a href="Lidl" title="Lidl">Lidl</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982250,_326-40">[39]</a> For speakers with the merger, the following utterances sound the same or almost the same:

<caption class="nowrap">Homophonous pairs

</caption>

<th>/-t-, -nt-/

</th>

<th>/-d-, -n-/

</th>

<th>IPA

</th>

<th>Notes

</th></tr>

<tr>

<td>aborting</td>

<td>aboarding</td>

<td>əˈbɔɹɾɪŋ

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>alighted</td>

<td>elided</td>

<td>əˈlaɪɾəd</td>

<td>With <a href="Weak_vowel_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Weak vowel merger">weak vowel merger</a>.

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Annie</td>

<td>ˈæɾ̃i

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Annie</td>

<td>ˈæɾ̃i

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>ˈæɾəm

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>ˈæɾəm

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>ˈæɾəm

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>ˈæɾəm

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>auntie</td>

<td>Annie</td>

<td>ˈæɾ̃i

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>banter</td>

<td>banner</td>

<td>ˈbæɾ̃əɹ

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>batter</td>

<td>badder</td>

<td>ˈbæɾəɹ

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>batty</td>

<td>baddie</td>

<td>ˈbæɾi

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>beating</td>

<td>beading</td>

<td>ˈbiːɾɪŋ

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Bertie</td>

<td>birdie</td>

<td>ˈbəɹɾi</td>

<td>With <a href="Fern-fir-fur_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Fern-fir-fur merger">fern-fir-fur merger</a>.

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Bertie</td>

<td>Birdy; Birdie</td>

<td>ˈbəɹɾi</td>

<td>With <a href="Fern-fir-fur_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Fern-fir-fur merger">fern-fir-fur merger</a>.

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>betting</td>

<td>bedding</td>

<td>ˈbɛɾɪŋ

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>biting</td>

<td>biding</td>

<td>ˈbaɪɾɪŋ

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>bitter</td>

<td>bidder</td>

<td>ˈbɪɾəɹ

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>bitting</td>

<td>bidding</td>

<td>ˈbɪɾɪŋ

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>bitty</td>

<td>biddy</td>

<td>ˈbɪɾi

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>blatter</td>

<td>bladder</td>

<td>ˈblæɾəɹ

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>bleating</td>

<td>bleeding</td>

<td>ˈbliːɾɪŋ

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>boating</td>

<td>boding</td>

<td>ˈboʊɾɪŋ

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>bruter</td>

<td>brooder</td>

<td>ˈbɹuːɾəɹ</td>

<td>With <a href="Yod-dropping" class="mw-redirect" title="Yod-dropping">yod-dropping</a> after /ɹ/.

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>butting</td>

<td>budding</td>

<td>ˈbʌɾɪŋ

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>butty</td>

<td>buddy</td>

<td>ˈbʌɾi

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>canter</td>

<td>canner</td>

<td>ˈkæɾ̃əɹ

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>canton</td>

<td>cannon</td>

<td>ˈkæɾ̃ən

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>canton</td>

<td>canon</td>

<td>ˈkæɾ̃ən

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>carting</td>

<td>carding</td>

<td>ˈkɑɹɾɪŋ

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>catty</td>

<td>caddy</td>

<td>ˈkæɾi

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>centre; center</td>

<td>sinner</td>

<td>With <a href="Pen%E2%80%93pin_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Pen–pin merger">pen–pin merger</a>.

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>chanting</td>

<td><a href="Channing_(name)" title="Channing (name)">Channing</a></td>

<td>ˈt͡ʃæɾ̃ɪŋ

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>cited</td>

<td>sided</td>

<td>ˈsaɪɾɨd

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>citer</td>

<td>cider</td>

<td>ˈsaɪɾəɹ

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>clotting</td>

<td>clodding</td>

<td>ˈklɒɾɪŋ

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>coating</td>

<td>coding</td>

<td>ˈkoʊɾɪŋ

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>courting</td>

<td>chording</td>

<td>ˈkɔɹɾɪŋ

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>courting</td>

<td>cording</td>

<td>ˈkɔɹɾɪŋ

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>cuttle</td>

<td>cuddle</td>

<td>ˈkʌɾəl

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>cutty</td>

<td>cuddy</td>

<td>ˈkʌɾi

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>daughter</td>

<td>dodder</td>

<td>ˈdɑɾəɹ</td>

<td>With <a href="Cot-caught_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Cot-caught merger">cot-caught merger</a>.

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>daunting</td>

<td>dawning</td>

<td>ˈdɔɾ̃ɪŋ

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>daunting</td>

<td>donning</td>

<td>With <a href="Cot-caught_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Cot-caught merger">cot-caught merger</a>.

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>debtor</td>

<td>deader</td>

<td>ˈdɛɾəɹ

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>diluted</td>

<td>deluded</td>

<td>dɪˈluːɾəd

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>doughnut</td>

<td>ˈdoʊɾ̃ət</td>

<td>With <a href="Weak_vowel_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Weak vowel merger">weak vowel merger</a> and <a href="Toe-tow_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Toe-tow merger">toe-tow merger</a>.

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>dotter</td>

<td>dodder</td>

<td>ˈdɑɾəɹ

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>doughty</td>

<td>dowdy</td>

<td>ˈdaʊɾi

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>eluted</td>

<td>alluded</td>

<td>əˈluːɾəd</td>

<td>With <a href="Weak_vowel_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Weak vowel merger">weak vowel merger</a>.

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>eluted</td>

<td>eluded</td>

<td>ɪˈluːɾəd

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>enter</td>

<td>In <a href="Non-rhotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-rhotic">non-rhotic</a> accents with <a href="Pen-pin_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Pen-pin merger">pen-pin merger</a>.

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>enter</td>

<td>inner</td>

<td>With <a href="Pen-pin_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Pen-pin merger">pen-pin merger</a>.

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>ˈeɪɾə

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>fated</td>

<td>faded</td>

<td>ˈfeɪɾɨd

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>flutter</td>

<td>flooder</td>

<td>ˈflʌɾəɹ

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>fontal</td>

<td>faunal</td>

<td>With <a href="Cot-caught_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Cot-caught merger">cot-caught merger</a>.

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>futile</td>

<td>feudal</td>

<td>ˈfjuːɾəl</td>

<td>With <a href="Weak_vowel_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Weak vowel merger">weak vowel merger</a>.

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>garter</td>

<td>guarder</td>

<td>ˈɡɑɹɾəɹ

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>gaunter</td>

<td>goner</td>

<td>With <a href="Cot-caught_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Cot-caught merger">cot-caught merger</a>.

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>goated</td>

<td>goaded</td>

<td>ˈɡoʊɾəd

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>grater</td>

<td>grader</td>

<td>ˈɡɹeɪɾəɹ

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>greater</td>

<td>grader</td>

<td>ˈɡɹeɪɾəɹ

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>gritted</td>

<td>gridded</td>

<td>ˈɡɹɪɾəd

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>gritty</td>

<td><a href="Griddy" title="Griddy">Griddy</a></td>

<td>ˈɡɹɪɾi

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>hearty</td>

<td>hardy</td>

<td>ˈhɑːɹɾi

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>heated</td>

<td>heeded</td>

<td>ˈhiːɾɨd</td>

<td>With <a href="Meet-meat_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Meet-meat merger">meet-meat merger</a>.

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Hetty; Hettie</td>

<td>heady</td>

<td>ˈhɛɾi

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>hurting</td>

<td>herding</td>

<td>ˈhɜːɹɾɪŋ</td>

<td>With <a href="Fern-fir-fur_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Fern-fir-fur merger">fern-fir-fur merger</a>.

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>inter-</td>

<td>In <a href="Non-rhotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-rhotic">non-rhotic</a> accents.

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>inter-</td>

<td>inner</td>

<td>ˈɪɾ̃əɹ

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>eider</td>

<td>ˈaɪɾəɹ

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>jaunty</td>

<td>Johnny</td>

<td>With <a href="Cot-caught" class="mw-redirect" title="Cot-caught">cot-caught</a> merger.

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>jointing</td>

<td>joining</td>

<td>ˈd͡ʒɔɪɾ̃ɪŋ

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>kitted</td>

<td>kidded</td>

<td>ˈkɪɾɨd

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>kitty</td>

<td>kiddie</td>

<td>ˈkɪɾi

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>knotted</td>

<td>nodded</td>

<td>ˈnɒɾɨd

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>latter</td>

<td>ladder</td>

<td>ˈlæɾəɹ

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>lauded</td>

<td>lotted</td>

<td>ˈlɑɾəd</td>

<td>With <a href="Cot-caught_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Cot-caught merger">cot-caught merger</a>.

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>linty</td>

<td>Lenny</td>

<td>With <a href="Pen-pin_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Pen-pin merger">pen-pin merger</a>.

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>liter</td>

<td>leader</td>

<td>ˈliːɾəɹ</td>

<td>With <a href="Meet-meat_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Meet-meat merger">meet-meat merger</a>.

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>little</td>

<td>ˈlɪɾəl

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>looter</td>

<td>lewder</td>

<td>ˈluːɾəɹ</td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>manta</td>

<td>manna</td>

<td>ˈmæɾ̃ə

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>manta</td>

<td>manner</td>

<td>In <a href="Non-rhotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-rhotic">non-rhotic</a> accents.

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>manta</td>

<td>manor</td>

<td>In <a href="Non-rhotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-rhotic">non-rhotic</a> accents.

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Marty</td>

<td>Mardi</td>

<td>ˈmɑːɹɾi</td>

<td>In the term <a href="Mardi_Gras" title="Mardi Gras">Mardi Gras</a>.

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>matter</td>

<td>madder</td>

<td>ˈmæɾəɹ

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>mattocks</td>

<td>Maddox</td>

<td>ˈmæɾəks

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>meant it</td>

<td>minute</td>

<td>With <a href="Pen%E2%80%93pin_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Pen–pin merger">pen–pin merger</a>.

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>metal</td>

<td>medal</td>

<td>ˈmɛɾəl

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>metal</td>

<td>meddle</td>

<td>ˈmɛɾəl

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>mettle</td>

<td>medal</td>

<td>ˈmɛɾəl

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>mettle</td>

<td>meddle</td>

<td>ˈmɛɾəl

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>minty</td>

<td>With <a href="Pen%E2%80%93pin_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Pen–pin merger">pen–pin merger</a>.

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>minty</td>

<td>ˈmɪɾ̃i

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>minty</td>

<td>Minnie</td>

<td>ˈmɪɾ̃i

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>motile</td>

<td>modal</td>

<td>ˈmoʊɾəl</td>

<td>With <a href="Weak_vowel_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Weak vowel merger">weak vowel merger</a>.

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>mottle</td>

<td>model</td>

<td>ˈmɑɾəl

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>mutter</td>

<td>mudder</td>

<td>ˈmʌɾəɹ

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>neater</td>

<td>kneader</td>

<td>ˈniːɾəɹ

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>neuter</td>

<td>nuder</td>

<td>ˈnuːɾəɹ, ˈnjuːɾəɹ, ˈnɪuɾəɹ

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>nighter</td>

<td>nidor</td>

<td>ˈnaɪɾəɹ

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>nitre; niter</td>

<td>nidor</td>

<td>ˈnaɪɾəɹ

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>noted</td>

<td>noded</td>

<td>ˈnoʊɾɨd

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>oater</td>

<td>odour; odor</td>

<td>ˈoʊɾəɹ

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>otter</td>

<td>odder</td>

<td>ˈɒɾəɹ

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>painting</td>

<td>paining</td>

<td>ˈpeɪɾ̃ɪŋ

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>panting</td>

<td>panning</td>

<td>ˈpæɾ̃ɪŋ

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>parity</td>

<td>parody</td>

<td>ˈpæɹəɾi</td>

<td>With <a href="Weak_vowel_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Weak vowel merger">weak vowel merger</a>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>patter</td>

<td>padder</td>

<td>ˈpæɾəɹ

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>patting</td>

<td>padding</td>

<td>ˈpæɾɪŋ

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>patty</td>

<td>paddy</td>

<td>ˈpæɾi

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>petal</td>

<td>pedal</td>

<td>ˈpɛɾəl

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>petal</td>

<td>peddle</td>

<td>ˈpɛɾəl

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>pettle</td>

<td>pedal</td>

<td>ˈpɛɾəl

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>pettle</td>

<td>peddle</td>

<td>ˈpɛɾəl

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>platted</td>

<td>plaided</td>

<td>ˈplæɾəd

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>planting</td>

<td>planning</td>

<td>ˈplæɾ̃ɪŋ

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>pleating</td>

<td>pleading</td>

<td>ˈpliːɾɪŋ

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>plenty</td>

<td><a href="Pliny_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Pliny (disambiguation)">Pliny</a></td>

<td>ˈplɪɾ̃i</td>

<td>With <a href="Pen%E2%80%93pin_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Pen–pin merger">pen–pin merger</a>.

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>plotting</td>

<td>plodding</td>

<td>ˈplɒɾɪŋ

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>potted</td>

<td>podded</td>

<td>ˈpɒɾɨd

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>pouter</td>

<td>powder</td>

<td>ˈpaʊɾəɹ

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>punting</td>

<td>punning</td>

<td>ˈpʌɾ̃ɪŋ

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>putting</td>

<td>pudding</td>

<td>ˈpʊɾɪŋ

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>rated</td>

<td>raided</td>

<td>ˈɹeɪɾɨd</td>

<td>With <a href="Pane-pain_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Pane-pain merger">pane-pain merger</a>.

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>rattle</td>

<td>raddle</td>

<td>ˈɹæɾəl

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>righting</td>

<td>riding</td>

<td>ˈɹaɪɾɪŋ

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>roadie</td>

<td>ˈɹoʊɾi

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>rooter</td>

<td>ruder</td>

<td>ˈɹuːɾəɹ</td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>rotting</td>

<td>rodding</td>

<td>ˈɹɒɾɪŋ

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>router</td>

<td>ruder</td>

<td>ˈɹuːɾəɹ</td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>runty</td>

<td>runny</td>

<td>ˈɹʌɾ̃i

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>rutty</td>

<td>ruddy</td>

<td>ˈɹʌɾi

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>sainting</td>

<td>seining</td>

<td>ˈseɪɾ̃ɪŋ

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Saturday</td>

<td>sadder day</td>

<td>ˈsæɾəɹdeɪ

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>satyr</td>

<td>Seder</td>

<td>ˈseɪɾəɹ

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>saunter</td>

<td>sauna</td>

<td>In <a href="Non-rhotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-rhotic">non-rhotic</a> accents.

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>scented</td>

<td>synod</td>

<td>With <a href="Pen-pin_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Pen-pin merger">pen-pin merger</a>.

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>scenting</td>

<td>sinning</td>

<td>With <a href="Pen-pin_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Pen-pin merger">pen-pin merger</a>.

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>seating</td>

<td>seeding</td>

<td>ˈsiːɾɪŋ</td>

<td>With <a href="Meet-meat_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Meet-meat merger">meet-meat merger</a>.

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>senate</td>

<td>ˈsɛɾ̃ɨt

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>ˈsɛɾɨt

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>shunting</td>

<td>shunning</td>

<td>ˈʃʌɾ̃ɪŋ

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>shutter</td>

<td>shudder</td>

<td>ˈʃʌɾəɹ

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>sighted</td>

<td>sided</td>

<td>ˈsaɪɾɨd

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>sighter</td>

<td>cider</td>

<td>ˈsaɪɾəɹ

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>sinter</td>

<td>sinner</td>

<td>ˈsɪɾ̃əɹ

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>sited</td>

<td>sided</td>

<td>ˈsaɪɾɨd

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>skitting</td>

<td>skidding</td>

<td>ˈskɪɾɪŋ

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>sorted</td>

<td>sordid</td>

<td>ˈsɔɹɾɨd

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>slighting</td>

<td>sliding</td>

<td>ˈslaɪɾɪŋ

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>stunting</td>

<td>stunning</td>

<td>ˈstʌɾ̃ɪŋ

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>tarty</td>

<td>tardy</td>

<td>ˈtɑɹɾi

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>tenter</td>

<td>tenner</td>

<td>ˈtɛɾ̃əɹ

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>tenter</td>

<td>tenor</td>

<td>ˈtɛɾ̃əɹ

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>tenting</td>

<td>tinning</td>

<td>ˈtɪɾɪŋ</td>

<td>With <a href="Pen-pin_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Pen-pin merger">pen-pin merger</a>.

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>title</td>

<td>tidal</td>

<td>ˈtaɪɾəl

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>toting</td>

<td>toading</td>

<td>ˈtoʊɾɪŋ

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>traitor</td>

<td>trader</td>

<td>ˈtɹeɪɾəɹ</td>

<td>With <a href="Pane-pain_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Pane-pain merger">pane-pain merger</a>.

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>tutor</td>

<td>Tudor</td>

<td>ˈtuːɾəɹ, ˈtjuːɾəɹ, ˈtɪuɾəɹ

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>tweeted</td>

<td>tweeded</td>

<td>ˈtwiːɾəd

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>utter</td>

<td>udder</td>

<td>ˈʌɾəɹ

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>waiter</td>

<td>wader</td>

<td>ˈweɪɾəɹ</td>

<td>With <a href="Pane-pain_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Pane-pain merger">pane-pain merger</a>.

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>wattle</td>

<td>waddle</td>

<td>ˈwɑɾəl

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>weighted</td>

<td>waded</td>

<td>ˈweɪɾəd</td>

<td>With <a href="Pane-pain_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Pane-pain merger">pane-pain merger</a>.

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>wetting</td>

<td>wedding</td>

<td>ˈwɛɾɪŋ

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>winter</td>

<td>winner</td>

<td>ˈwɪɾ̃əɹ

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>wheated</td>

<td>weeded</td>

<td>ˈwiːɾəd</td>

<td>With <a href="Wine-whine_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Wine-whine merger">wine-whine merger</a>.

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>whiter</td>

<td>wider</td>

<td>ˈwaɪɾəɹ</td>

<td>With <a href="Wine%E2%80%93whine_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Wine–whine merger">wine–whine merger</a>.

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>writing</td>

<td>riding</td>

<td>ˈɹaɪɾɪŋ

</td></tr></tbody></table>

In accents characterized by <a href="Canadian_raising" title="Canadian raising">Canadian raising</a>, such words as riding and writing may be flapped yet still distinguished by the quality of the vowel: riding [ˈɹaɪɾɪŋ], writing [ˈɹʌɪɾɪŋ].<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHayes2009144–146-41">[40]</a> Vowel duration may also be different, with a longer vowel before /d/ than before /t/, due to <a href="Pre-fortis_clipping" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-fortis clipping">pre-fortis clipping</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGussenhovenJacobs2017217-42">[41]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Withgott_effect">Withgott effect</h2></div>

In a dissertation in 1982, M.M. Withgott demonstrated that, among speakers of <a href="American_English" title="American English">American English</a>, words seem to be chunked into pronunciation units she referred to as a foot, similar to a metrical unit in poetry. Such chunking was said to block flapping in the word ‘Mediterranean’ ([[Medi[terranean] ], cf. [ [sub[terranean]]). How a word is chunked relates to its <a href="Morphological_derivation" title="Morphological derivation">morphological</a> derivation, as seen by contrasting morphologically similar pairs such as the following (where the vertical bar shows where Withgott argued there is boundary between neighboring feet):

<table>

<td>Initial-type t</td>

<td>flapped-t</td>

<td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>military</td>

<td>[ˈmɪlɨ | tʰɛɹi]</td>

<td>capital</td>

<td>[ˈkʰæpɨɾl̩]

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>militaristic</td>

<td>[ˌmɪlɨ | tʰəˈɹɪstɪk]</td>

<td>capitalistic</td>

<td>[ˌkʰæpɨɾə | ˈlɪstɪk]

</td></tr></tbody></table>

The medial t in càpitalístic can be flapped as easily as in post-stress cátty [ˈkʰæɾi], in contrast to the medial t in mìlitarístic, which comes at the beginning of a foot, and so must be pronounced as [tʰ], like a t at the beginning of a word.

Long, seemingly monomorphemic words also are chunked in English for purposes of pronunciation. In such words [t]’s — as well as the other unvoiced stops — are pronounced like initial segments whenever they receive secondary <a href="Stress_(linguistics)" title="Stress (linguistics)">stress</a> or are at the beginning of a foot.

The origins of the T-to-R rule lie in the flapping of /t/ and the subsequent reinterpretation of the flap as /r/, which was then followed by the use of the prevailing variant of /r/, namely the approximant [<a href="Voiced_alveolar_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar approximant">ɹ</a>]. It is applied in <a href="Northern_England_English" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern England English">Northern England English</a> and it is always stigmatized. The application of that rule means that shut in the phrasal verb to shut up /ʃʊrˈʊp/ has a different phonemic form than the citation form of the verb to shut /ʃʊt/. The rule is typically not applied in the word-internal position.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982370-43">[42]</a>

The T-to-R rule has also been reported to occur in the <a href="Cardiff_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardiff dialect">Cardiff dialect</a> (where the merged consonant can surface as either an approximant or a flap) and <a href="South_African_English" title="South African English">South African English</a> (where only a flap is possible). In the Cardiff dialect, the rule is typically applied between any vowel (including long vowels) and /ə/ or the reduced /ɪ/ (also across word boundaries), so that starting /ˈstaːtɪŋ/ and starring /ˈstaːrɪŋ/ can be homophonous as [ˈstaːɹɪn ~ ˈstaːɾɪn]. In South African English, the merger is possible only for those speakers who use the flapped allophone of /r/ (making the starting–starring minimal pair homophonous as [ˈstɑːɾɪŋ]), otherwise the sounds are distinguished as a flap (or a voiceless stop) for /t/ ([ˈstɑːɾɪŋ ~ stɑːtɪŋ]) vs. approximant for /r/ ([ˈstɑːɹɪŋ]). There, the merger occurs word-internally between vowels in those environments where flapping is possible in North American English.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982616–618-44">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollinsMees199091–92-10">[10]</a>

<caption class="nowrap">Homophonous pairs

</caption>

<th>/t/

</th>

<th>/r/

</th>

<th>IPA

</th>

<th>Notes

</th></tr>

<tr>

<td>battle

</td>

<td>barrel

</td>

<td>ˈbæɾəl

</td>

<td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>batty

</td>

<td>Barrie

</td>

<td>ˈbæɾi

</td>

<td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>batty

</td>

<td>Barry

</td>

<td>ˈbæɾi

</td>

<td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>betty

</td>

<td>berry

</td>

<td>ˈbɛɾi

</td>

<td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>but a

</td>

<td>borough

</td>

<td>ˈbəɾə

</td>

<td>In Cardiff English. But has an alternative form /bə/, with an elided /t/.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollinsMees199099-45">[44]</a>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>butter

</td>

<td>borough

</td>

<td>ˈbʌɾə

</td>

<td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>catty

</td>

<td>carry

</td>

<td>ˈkæɾi

</td>

<td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>catty

</td>

<td>kar(r)ee

</td>

<td>ˈkæɾi

</td>

<td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>daughter

</td>

<td>Dora

</td>

<td>ˈdɔːɾə

</td>

<td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Fetty

</td>

<td>ferry

</td>

<td>ˈfɛɾi

</td>

<td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>hotter

</td>

<td>horror

</td>

<td>ˈhɒɾə

</td>

<td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>jetty

</td>

<td>jerry

</td>

<td>ˈd͡ʒɛɾi

</td>

<td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Lottie

</td>

<td>lorry

</td>

<td>ˈlɒɾi

</td>

<td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>matty

</td>

<td>marry

</td>

<td>ˈmæɾi

</td>

<td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>otter

</td>

<td>horror

</td>

<td>ˈɒɾə

</td>

<td>With <a href="H-dropping" title="H-dropping">h-dropping</a>.

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>petty

</td>

<td>Perry

</td>

<td>ˈpɛɾi

</td>

<td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>starting

</td>

<td>starring

</td>

<td>ˈstɑːɾɪŋ

</td>

<td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>tarty

</td>

<td>tarry

</td>

<td>ˈtɑːɾi

</td>

<td>Tarry in the sense "resembling tar".

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<ul><li><a href="Phonological_history_of_English_consonants" title="Phonological history of English consonants">Phonological history of English consonants</a></li>

<li><a href="Regional_accents_of_English" title="Regional accents of English">Regional accents of English</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div>

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</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha">

<li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> Since North American English normally lacks the distinction between /ɪ/ and /ə/ in unstressed positions, there is variability among linguists and dictionaries in the treatment of unstressed vowels pronounced as /ɪ/ in other varieties of English that have the distinction. They are usually identified as /ɪ/ before <a href="Palato-alveolar_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Palato-alveolar consonant">palato-alveolar</a> and <a href="Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">velar</a> consonants (/ʃ, tʃ, dʒ, k, ɡ, ŋ/) and in prefixes such as re-, e-, de-, and as /ə/ elsewhere.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells2000xv-25">[25]</a>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982325-1"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1982325_1-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWells1982">Wells (1982)</a>, p. 325.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> E.g. in <a href="#CITEREFFox2011">Fox (2011</a>:158).

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOgden200992-3"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOgden200992_3-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFOgden2009">Ogden (2009)</a>, p. 92.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedJohnson2011175–176-4"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefogedJohnson2011175–176_4-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLadefogedJohnson2011">Ladefoged & Johnson (2011)</a>, pp. 175–176.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982249-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1982249_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1982249_5-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWells1982">Wells (1982)</a>, p. 249.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Jong1998284-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Jong1998284_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Jong1998284_6-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Jong1998284_6-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Jong1998284_6-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFde_Jong1998">de Jong (1998)</a>, p. 284.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShockey200329-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShockey200329_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShockey200329_7-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShockey200329_7-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFShockey2003">Shockey (2003)</a>, p. 29.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDerrickGick2011309–312-8"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDerrickGick2011309–312_8-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDerrickGick2011">Derrick & Gick (2011)</a>, pp. 309–312.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982326-9"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1982326_9-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWells1982">Wells (1982)</a>, p. 326.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECollinsMees199091–92-10">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECollinsMees199091–92_10-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECollinsMees199091–92_10-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFCollinsMees1990">Collins & Mees (1990)</a>, pp. 91–92.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsmith2011191-11">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsmith2011191_11-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsmith2011191_11-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsmith2011191_11-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFGoldsmith2011">Goldsmith (2011)</a>, p. 191.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShockey200330-12"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShockey200330_12-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFShockey2003">Shockey (2003)</a>, p. 30.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETrudgillHannah200824,_30,_35,_104-13"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETrudgillHannah200824,_30,_35,_104_13-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTrudgillHannah2008">Trudgill & Hannah (2008)</a>, pp. 24, 30, 35, 104.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHickey2007115-14"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHickey2007115_14-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHickey2007">Hickey (2007)</a>, p. 115.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsmith2011191–192-15">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsmith2011191–192_15-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsmith2011191–192_15-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFGoldsmith2011">Goldsmith (2011)</a>, pp. 191–192.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHualde20112230-16"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHualde20112230_16-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHualde2011">Hualde (2011)</a>, p. 2230.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHayes2009143-17"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHayes2009143_17-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHayes2009">Hayes (2009)</a>, p. 143.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoberg2015236-18"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoberg2015236_18-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBoberg2015">Boberg (2015)</a>, p. 236.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones2011xi-19"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones2011xi_19-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJones2011">Jones (2011)</a>, p. xi.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrintonFee2001428-20"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrintonFee2001428_20-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrintonFee2001">Brinton & Fee (2001)</a>, p. 428.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982248-21"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1982248_21-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWells1982">Wells (1982)</a>, p. 248.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETollfree200157–58-22"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETollfree200157–58_22-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTollfree2001">Tollfree (2001)</a>, pp. 57–58.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982251-23"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1982251_23-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWells1982">Wells (1982)</a>, p. 251.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERepetti-LudlowBlake2024-24"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERepetti-LudlowBlake2024_24-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRepetti-LudlowBlake2024">Repetti-Ludlow & Blake (2024)</a>.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells2000xv-25"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells2000xv_25-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWells2000">Wells (2000)</a>, p. xv.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHayes199514–15-27">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHayes199514–15_27-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHayes199514–15_27-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFHayes1995">Hayes (1995)</a>, pp. 14–15.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells2011-28"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells2011_28-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWells2011">Wells (2011)</a>.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVaux20005-29"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVaux20005_29-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFVaux2000">Vaux (2000)</a>, p. 5.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBérces201184–89-30"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBérces201184–89_30-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBérces2011">Bérces (2011)</a>, pp. 84–89.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefogedJohnson201174–75-31"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefogedJohnson201174–75_31-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLadefogedJohnson2011">Ladefoged & Johnson (2011)</a>, pp. 74–75.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982252-32"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1982252_32-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWells1982">Wells (1982)</a>, p. 252.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVaux20004–5-33"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVaux20004–5_33-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFVaux2000">Vaux (2000)</a>, pp. 4–5.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsmith2011192-34"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsmith2011192_34-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGoldsmith2011">Goldsmith (2011)</a>, p. 192.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHorvath2004635-35"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHorvath2004635_35-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHorvath2004">Horvath (2004)</a>, p. 635.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVaux20007-36"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVaux20007_36-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFVaux2000">Vaux (2000)</a>, p. 7.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVaux20006–7-37"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVaux20006–7_37-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFVaux2000">Vaux (2000)</a>, pp. 6–7.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIversonAhn2007262–263-38"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIversonAhn2007262–263_38-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFIversonAhn2007">Iverson & Ahn (2007)</a>, pp. 262–263.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHayes2009144-39"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHayes2009144_39-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHayes2009">Hayes (2009)</a>, p. 144.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982250,_326-40"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1982250,_326_40-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWells1982">Wells (1982)</a>, pp. 250, 326.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHayes2009144–146-41"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHayes2009144–146_41-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHayes2009">Hayes (2009)</a>, pp. 144–146.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGussenhovenJacobs2017217-42"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGussenhovenJacobs2017217_42-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGussenhovenJacobs2017">Gussenhoven & Jacobs (2017)</a>, p. 217.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982370-43"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1982370_43-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWells1982">Wells (1982)</a>, p. 370.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982616–618-44"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1982616–618_44-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWells1982">Wells (1982)</a>, pp. 616–618.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECollinsMees199099-45"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECollinsMees199099_45-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCollinsMees1990">Collins & Mees (1990)</a>, p. 99.

</li>

</ol></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2></div>

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<li><cite id="CITEREFGoldsmith2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="John_Goldsmith_(linguist)" title="John Goldsmith (linguist)">Goldsmith, John</a> (2011). "The Syllable". In Goldsmith, John; Riggle, Jason; Yu, Alan C. L. (eds.). The Handbook of Phonological Theory (2nd ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 164–196. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781444343069.ch6">10.1002/9781444343069.ch6</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-4051-5768-1</bdi>.</cite></li>

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<li><cite id="CITEREFHualde2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Jos%C3%A9_Ignacio_Hualde" title="José Ignacio Hualde">Hualde, José Ignacio</a> (2011). "Sound Change". In <a href="Marc_van_Oostendorp" title="Marc van Oostendorp">van Oostendorp, Marc</a>; Ewen, Colin J.; <a href="Elizabeth_V._Hume" title="Elizabeth V. Hume">Hume, Elizabeth</a>; <a href="Keren_Rice" title="Keren Rice">Rice, Keren</a> (eds.). The Blackwell Companion to Phonology: Volume IV – Phonological Interfaces. Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 2214–2235. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-40518423-6</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFIversonAhn2007" class="citation journal cs1">Iverson, Gregory K.; Ahn, Sang-Cheol (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120415102047/https://pantherfile.uwm.edu/iverson/www/engvce.pdf">"English voicing in dimensional theory"</a> (PDF). <a href="Language_Sciences" title="Language Sciences">Language Sciences</a>. 29 (2–3): 247–269. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.langsci.2006.12.012">10.1016/j.langsci.2006.12.012</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2390816">2390816</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18496590">18496590</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pantherfile.uwm.edu/iverson/www/engvce.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 15 April 2012.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFJones2011" class="citation cs1"><a href="Daniel_Jones_(phonetician)" title="Daniel Jones (phonetician)">Jones, Daniel</a> (2011). <a href="Peter_Roach_(phonetician)" title="Peter Roach (phonetician)">Roach, Peter</a>; <a href="Jane_Setter" title="Jane Setter">Setter, Jane</a>; <a href="John_Esling" title="John Esling">Esling, John</a> (eds.). <a href="English_Pronouncing_Dictionary" title="English Pronouncing Dictionary">Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary</a> (18th ed.). Cambridge University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-521-15255-6</bdi>.</cite></li>

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</style><cite id="CITEREFWells1982" class="citation book"><a href="John_C._Wells" title="John C. Wells">Wells, John C.</a> (1982). Accents of English. Vol. 1: An Introduction (pp. i–xx, 1–278), Vol. 2: The British Isles (pp. i–xx, 279–466), Vol. 3: Beyond the British Isles (pp. i–xx, 467–674). Cambridge University Press. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9780511611759">10.1017/CBO9780511611759</a>, <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9780511611766">10.1017/CBO9780511611766</a>. <a href="International_Standard_Book_Number" class="mw-redirect" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> 0-52129719-2<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fde.wikipedia.org%3AFlapping&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Accents+of+English&rft.aulast=Wells&rft.aufirst=John+C.&rft.date=1982&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.volume=1%3A+An+Introduction&rft.isbn=0-52129719-2"> , 0-52128540-2<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fde.wikipedia.org%3AFlapping&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Accents+of+English&rft.aulast=Wells&rft.aufirst=John+C.&rft.date=1982&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.volume=2%3A+The+British+Isles&rft.isbn=0-52128540-2&rft_id=info:doi/10.1017%2FCBO9780511611759"> , 0-52128541-0<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fde.wikipedia.org%3AFlapping&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Accents+of+English&rft.aulast=Wells&rft.aufirst=John+C.&rft.date=1982&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.volume=3%3A+Beyond+the+British+Isles&rft.isbn=0-52128541-0&rft_id=info:doi/10.1017%2FCBO9780511611759"> .</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFWells2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="John_C._Wells" title="John C. Wells">Wells, John C.</a> (2000). Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (2nd ed.). Longman. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-582-36467-1</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFWells2011" class="citation web cs1">Wells, John C. (25 March 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://phonetic-blog.blogspot.com/2011/03/strong-and-weak.html">"strong and weak"</a>. John Wells's phonetic blog.</cite></li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<ul><li>Withgott, M. Margaret. 1982. Segmental Evidence for Phonological Constituents. Ph.D. Dissertation for the University of Texas at Austin.</li>

<li>Iverson, Gregory K. and Sang-Cheol Ahn. 2004. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120415102047/http://pantherfile.uwm.edu/iverson/www/engvce.pdf">English Voicing in Dimensional Theory</a>. Language Sciences (Phonology of English).</li>

<li>Kahn, Daniel. 1976. Syllable-Based Generalizations in English Phonology. Ph.D. Dissertation for the University of Massachusetts reproduced by I.U. Linguistics Club.</li>

<li>Steriade, Donca. 1999. Paradigm uniformity and the phonetics-phonology boundary. In M. Broe and J. Pierrehumbert (eds.), Papers in Laboratory Phonology V: Acquisition and the lexicon, 313-334. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</li></ul>

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<ul><li><a href="Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European</a></li>

<li><a href="Proto-Germanic_language" title="Proto-Germanic language">Proto-Germanic</a></li>

<li><a href="West_Germanic_languages" title="West Germanic languages">Proto-West-Germanic</a></li>

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<li><a href="Anglo-Norman_language" title="Anglo-Norman language">Anglo-Norman language</a></li>

<li><a href="Middle_English" title="Middle English">Middle English</a></li>

<li><a href="Early_Modern_English" title="Early Modern English">Early Modern English</a></li>

<li><a href="Modern_English" title="Modern English">Modern English</a></li></ul>

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<li><a href="English-language_vowel_changes_before_historic_/l/" title="English-language vowel changes before historic /l/">Changes before historic /l/</a></li>

<li><a href="English-language_vowel_changes_before_historic_/r/" title="English-language vowel changes before historic /r/">Changes before historic /r/</a></li>

<li><a href="Phonological_history_of_English_close_back_vowels" title="Phonological history of English close back vowels">Close back vowels</a></li>

<li><a href="Phonological_history_of_English_close_front_vowels" title="Phonological history of English close front vowels">Close front vowels</a></li>

<li><a href="Phonological_history_of_English_diphthongs" title="Phonological history of English diphthongs">Diphthongs</a></li>

<li><a href="Great_Vowel_Shift" title="Great Vowel Shift">Great Vowel Shift</a></li>

<li><a href="Phonological_history_of_English_open_back_vowels" title="Phonological history of English open back vowels">Open back vowels</a></li>

<li><a href="Trisyllabic_laxing" title="Trisyllabic laxing">Trisyllabic laxing</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Phonological_history_of_English_consonants" title="Phonological history of English consonants">Consonants</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Phonological_history_of_English_consonant_clusters" title="Phonological history of English consonant clusters">Clusters</a></li>

<li><a href="H-dropping" title="H-dropping">H-dropping</a></li>

<li><a href="L-vocalization" title="L-vocalization">L-vocalization</a></li>

<li><a href="Rhoticity_in_English" title="Rhoticity in English">Rhoticity</a></li>

<li><a href="T-glottalization" title="T-glottalization">T-glottalization</a></li>

<ul><li><a href="Th-fronting" title="Th-fronting">fronting</a></li>

<li><a href="Th-stopping" title="Th-stopping">stopping</a></li></ul></li>

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